# nim-result is also available stand-alone from https://github.com/arnetheduck/nim-result/ # Copyright (c) 2019 Jacek Sieka # Licensed and distributed under either of # * MIT license (license terms in the root directory or at http://opensource.org/licenses/MIT). # * Apache v2 license (license terms in the root directory or at http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0). # at your option. This file may not be copied, modified, or distributed except according to those terms. type ResultError*[E] = object of ValueError ## Error raised when using `tryGet` value of result when error is set ## See also Exception bridge mode error*: E ResultDefect* = object of Defect ## Defect raised when accessing value when error is set and vice versa ## See also Exception bridge mode Result*[T, E] = object ## Result type that can hold either a value or an error, but not both ## ## # Example ## ## ``` ## # It's convenient to create an alias - most likely, you'll do just fine ## # with strings or cstrings as error ## ## type R = Result[int, string] ## ## # Once you have a type, use `ok` and `err`: ## ## func works(): R = ## # ok says it went... ok! ## R.ok 42 ## func fails(): R = ## # or type it like this, to not repeat the type! ## result.err "bad luck" ## ## if (let w = works(); w.isOk): ## echo w[], " or use value: ", w.value ## ## # In case you think your callers want to differentiate between errors: ## type ## Error = enum ## a, b, c ## type RE[T] = Result[T, Error] ## ## # In the expriments corner, you'll find the following syntax for passing ## # errors up the stack: ## func f(): R = ## let x = ?works() - ?fails() ## assert false, "will never reach" ## ## # If you provide this exception converter, this exception will be raised ## # on dereference ## func toException(v: Error): ref CatchableError = (ref CatchableError)(msg: $v) ## try: ## RE[int].err(a)[] ## except CatchableError: ## echo "in here!" ## ## ``` ## ## See the tests for more practical examples, specially when working with ## back and forth with the exception world! ## ## # Potential benefits: ## ## * Handling errors becomes explicit and mandatory at the call site - ## goodbye "out of sight, out of mind" ## * Errors are a visible part of the API - when they change, so must the ## calling code and compiler will point this out - nice! ## * Errors are a visible part of the API - your fellow programmer is ## reminded that things actually can go wrong ## * Jives well with Nim `discard` ## * Jives well with the new Defect exception hierarchy, where defects ## are raised for unrecoverable errors and the rest of the API uses ## results ## * Error and value return have similar performance characteristics ## * Caller can choose to turn them into exceptions at low cost - flexible ## for libraries! ## * Mostly relies on simple Nim features - though this library is no ## exception in that compiler bugs were discovered writing it :) ## ## # Potential costs: ## ## * Handling errors becomes explicit and mandatory - if you'd rather ignore ## them or just pass them to some catch-all, this is noise ## * When composing operations, value must be lifted before processing, ## adding potential verbosity / noise (fancy macro, anyone?) ## * There's no call stack captured by default (see also `catch` and ## `capture`) ## * The extra branching may be more expensive for the non-error path ## (though this can be minimized with PGO) ## ## The API visibility issue of exceptions can also be solved with ## `{.raises.}` annotations - as of now, the compiler doesn't remind ## you to do so, even though it knows what the right annotation should be. ## `{.raises.}` does not participate in generic typing, making it just as ## verbose but less flexible in some ways, if you want to type it out. ## ## Many system languages make a distinction between errors you want to ## handle and those that are simply bugs or unrealistic to deal with.. ## handling the latter will often involve aborting or crashing the funcess - ## reliable systems like Erlang will try to relaunch it. ## ## On the flip side we have dynamic languages like python where there's ## nothing exceptional about exceptions (hello StopIterator). Python is ## rarely used to build reliable systems - its strengths lie elsewhere. ## ## # Exception bridge mode ## ## When the error of a `Result` is an `Exception`, or a `toException` helper ## is present for your error type, the "Exception bridge mode" is ## enabled and instead of raising `ResultError`, `tryGet` will raise the ## given `Exception` on access. `[]` and `get` will continue to raise a ## `Defect`. ## ## This is an experimental feature that may be removed. ## ## # Other languages ## ## Result-style error handling seems pretty popular lately, specially with ## statically typed languages: ## Haskell: https://hackage.haskell.org/package/base-4.11.1.0/docs/Data-Either.html ## Rust: https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/result/enum.Result.html ## Modern C++: https://github.com/viboes/std-make/tree/master/doc/proposal/expected ## More C++: https://github.com/ned14/outcome ## ## Swift is interesting in that it uses a non-exception implementation but ## calls errors exceptions and has lots of syntactic sugar to make them feel ## that way by implicitly passing them up the call chain - with a mandatory ## annotation that function may throw: ## https://developer.apple.com/library/content/documentation/Swift/Conceptual/Swift_Programming_Language/ErrorHandling.html ## ## # Considerations for the error type ## ## * Use a `string` or a `cstring` if you want to provide a diagnostic for ## the caller without an expectation that they will differentiate between ## different errors. Callers should never parse the given string! ## * Use an `enum` to provide in-depth errors where the caller is expected ## to have different logic for different errors ## * Use a complex type to include error-specific meta-data - or make the ## meta-data collection a visible part of your API in another way - this ## way it remains discoverable by the caller! ## ## A natural "error API" progression is starting with `Option[T]`, then ## `Result[T, cstring]`, `Result[T, enum]` and `Result[T, object]` in ## escalating order of complexity. ## ## # Other implemenations in nim ## ## There are other implementations in nim that you might prefer: ## * Either from nimfp: https://github.com/vegansk/nimfp/blob/master/src/fp/either.nim ## * result_type: https://github.com/kapralos/result_type/ ## ## # Implementation notes ## ## This implementation is mostly based on the one in rust. Compared to it, ## there are a few differences - if know of creative ways to improve things, ## I'm all ears. ## ## * Rust has the enum variants which lend themselves to nice construction ## where the full Result type isn't needed: `Err("some error")` doesn't ## need to know value type - maybe some creative converter or something ## can deal with this? ## * Nim templates allow us to fail fast without extra effort, meaning the ## other side of `and`/`or` isn't evaluated unless necessary - nice! ## * Rust uses From traits to deal with result translation as the result ## travels up the call stack - needs more tinkering - some implicit ## conversions would be nice here ## * Pattern matching in rust allows convenient extraction of value or error ## in one go. ## ## # Performance considerations ## ## When returning a Result instead of a simple value, there are a few things ## to take into consideration - in general, we are returning more ## information directly to the caller which has an associated cost. ## ## Result is a value type, thus its performance characteristics ## generally follow the performance of copying the value or error that ## it stores. `Result` would benefit greatly from "move" support in the ## language. ## ## In many cases, these performance costs are negligeable, but nonetheless ## they are important to be aware of, to structure your code in an efficient ## manner: ## ## * Memory overhead ## Result is stored in memory as a union with a `bool` discriminator - ## alignment makes it somewhat tricky to give an exact size, but in ## general, `Result[int, int]` will take up `2*sizeof(int)` bytes: ## 1 `int` for the discriminator and padding, 1 `int` for either the value ## or the error. The additional size means that returning may take up more ## registers or spill onto the stack. ## * Loss of RVO ## Nim does return-value-optimization by rewriting `proc f(): X` into ## `proc f(result: var X)` - in an expression like `let x = f()`, this ## allows it to avoid a copy from the "temporary" return value to `x` - ## when using Result, this copy currently happens always because you need ## to fetch the value from the Result in a second step: `let x = f().value` ## * Extra copies ## To avoid spurious evaluation of expressions in templates, we use a ## temporary variable sometimes - this means an unnecessary copy for some ## types. ## * Bad codegen ## When doing RVO, Nim generates poor and slow code: it uses a construct ## called `genericReset` that will zero-initialize a value using dynamic ## RTTI - a process that the C compiler subsequently is unable to ## optimize. This applies to all types, but is exacerbated with Result ## because of its bigger footprint - this should be fixed in compiler. ## * Double zero-initialization bug ## Nim has an initialization bug that causes additional poor performance: ## `var x = f()` will be expanded into `var x; zeroInit(x); f(x)` where ## `f(x)` will call the slow `genericReset` and zero-init `x` again, ## unnecessarily. ## ## Comparing `Result` performance to exceptions in Nim is difficult - it ## will depend on the error type used, the frequency at which exceptions ## happen, the amount of error handling code in the application and the ## compiler and backend used. ## ## * the default C backend in nim uses `setjmp` for exception handling - ## the relative performance of the happy path will depend on the structure ## of the code: how many exception handlers there are, how much unwinding ## happens. `setjmp` works by taking a snapshot of the full CPU state and ## saving it to memory when enterting a try block (or an implict try ## block, such as is introduced with `defer` and similar constructs). ## * an efficient exception handling mechanism (like the C++ backend or ## `nlvm`) will usually have a lower cost on the happy path because the ## value can be returned more efficiently. However, there is still a code ## and data size increase depending on the specific situation, as well as ## loss of optimization opportunities to consider. ## * raising an exception is usually (a lot) slower than returning an error ## through a Result - at raise time, capturing a call stack and allocating ## memory for the Exception is expensive, so the performance difference ## comes down to the complexity of the error type used. ## * checking for errors with Result is local branching operation that also ## happens on the happy path - this may be a cost. ## ## An accurate summary might be that Exceptions are at its most efficient ## when errors are not handled and don't happen. ## ## # Relevant nim bugs ## ## https://github.com/nim-lang/Nim/issues/13799 - type issues ## https://github.com/nim-lang/Nim/issues/8745 - genericReset slow ## https://github.com/nim-lang/Nim/issues/13879 - double-zero-init slow ## https://github.com/nim-lang/Nim/issues/14318 - generic error raises pragma case o: bool of false: e: E of true: v: T Opt*[T] = Result[T, void] func raiseResultError[T, E](self: Result[T, E]) {.noreturn, noinline.} = # noinline because raising should take as little space as possible at call # site mixin toException when E is ref Exception: if self.e.isNil: # for example Result.default()! raise (ref ResultError[void])(msg: "Trying to access value with err (nil)") raise self.e elif compiles(toException(self.e)): raise toException(self.e) elif compiles($self.e): raise (ref ResultError[E])( error: self.e, msg: "Trying to access value with err: " & $self.e) else: raise (res ResultError[E])(msg: "Trying to access value with err", error: self.e) func raiseResultDefect(m: string, v: auto) {.noreturn, noinline.} = mixin `$` when compiles($v): raise (ref ResultDefect)(msg: m & ": " & $v) else: raise (ref ResultDefect)(msg: m) func raiseResultDefect(m: string) {.noreturn, noinline.} = raise (ref ResultDefect)(msg: m) template assertOk(self: Result) = if not self.o: when self.E isnot void: raiseResultDefect("Trying to acces value with err Result", self.e) else: raiseResultDefect("Trying to acces value with err Result") template ok*[T, E](R: type Result[T, E], x: auto): R = ## Initialize a result with a success and value ## Example: `Result[int, string].ok(42)` R(o: true, v: x) template ok*[T, E](self: var Result[T, E], x: auto) = ## Set the result to success and update value ## Example: `result.ok(42)` self = ok(type self, x) template err*[T, E](R: type Result[T, E], x: auto): R = ## Initialize the result to an error ## Example: `Result[int, string].err("uh-oh")` R(o: false, e: x) template err*[T](R: type Result[T, void]): R = R(o: false) template err*[T, E](self: var Result[T, E], x: auto) = ## Set the result as an error ## Example: `result.err("uh-oh")` self = err(type self, x) template err*[T](self: var Result[T, void]) = ## Set the result as an error ## Example: `result.err()` self = err(type self) template ok*(v: auto): auto = ok(typeof(result), v) template err*(v: auto): auto = err(typeof(result), v) template isOk*(self: Result): bool = self.o template isErr*(self: Result): bool = not self.o template isSome*(o: Opt): bool = ## Alias for `isOk` isOk o template isNone*(o: Opt): bool = ## Alias of `isErr` isErr o func map*[T, E, A]( self: Result[T, E], f: proc(x: T): A): Result[A, E] {.inline.} = ## Transform value using f, or return error ## ## ``` ## let r = Result[int, cstring).ok(42) ## assert r.map(proc (v: int): int = $v).get() == "42" ## ``` if self.o: result.ok(f(self.v)) else: result.err(self.e) func flatMap*[T, E, A]( self: Result[T, E], f: proc(x: T): Result[A, E]): Result[A, E] {.inline.} = if self.o: f(self.v) else: Result[A, E].err(self.e) func mapErr*[T: not void, E, A]( self: Result[T, E], f: proc(x: E): A): Result[T, A] {.inline.} = ## Transform error using f, or return value if self.o: result.ok(self.v) else: result.err(f(self.e)) func mapConvert*[T0, E0]( self: Result[T0, E0], T1: type): Result[T1, E0] {.inline.} = ## Convert result value to A using an conversion # Would be nice if it was automatic... if self.o: result.ok(T1(self.v)) else: result.err(self.e) func mapCast*[T0, E0]( self: Result[T0, E0], T1: type): Result[T1, E0] {.inline.} = ## Convert result value to A using a cast ## Would be nice with nicer syntax... if self.o: result.ok(cast[T1](self.v)) else: result.err(self.e) template `and`*[T0, E, T1](self: Result[T0, E], other: Result[T1, E]): Result[T1, E] = ## Evaluate `other` iff self.isOk, else return error ## fail-fast - will not evaluate other if a is an error let s = self if s.o: other else: when type(self) is type(other): s else: type R = type(other) err(R, s.e) template `or`*[T, E0, E1](self: Result[T, E0], other: Result[T, E1]): Result[T, E1] = ## Evaluate `other` iff `not self.isOk`, else return `self` ## fail-fast - will not evaluate `other` if `self` is ok ## ## ``` ## func f(): Result[int, SomeEnum] = ## f2() or err(EnumValue) # Collapse errors from other module / function ## ``` let s = self if s.o: when type(self) is type(other): s else: type R = type(other) ok(R, s.v) else: other template catch*(body: typed): Result[type(body), ref CatchableError] = ## Catch exceptions for body and store them in the Result ## ## ``` ## let r = catch: someFuncThatMayRaise() ## ``` type R = Result[type(body), ref CatchableError] try: R.ok(body) except CatchableError as e: R.err(e) template capture*[E: Exception](T: type, someExceptionExpr: ref E): Result[T, ref E] = ## Evaluate someExceptionExpr and put the exception into a result, making sure ## to capture a call stack at the capture site: ## ## ``` ## let e: Result[void, ValueError] = void.capture((ref ValueError)(msg: "test")) ## echo e.error().getStackTrace() ## ``` type R = Result[T, ref E] var ret: R try: # TODO is this needed? I think so, in order to grab a call stack, but # haven't actually tested... if true: # I'm sure there's a nicer way - this just works :) raise someExceptionExpr except E as caught: ret = R.err(caught) ret func `==`*[T0, E0, T1, E1](lhs: Result[T0, E0], rhs: Result[T1, E1]): bool {.inline.} = if lhs.o != rhs.o: false elif lhs.o: # and rhs.o implied lhs.v == rhs.v else: lhs.e == rhs.e func get*[T: not void, E](self: Result[T, E]): T {.inline.} = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise Defect ## Exception bridge mode: raise given Exception instead ## See also: Option.get assertOk(self) self.v func tryGet*[T: not void, E](self: Result[T, E]): T {.inline.} = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise ## When E is an Exception, raise that exception - otherwise, raise a ResultError[E] mixin raiseResultError if not self.o: self.raiseResultError() self.v func get*[T, E](self: Result[T, E], otherwise: T): T {.inline.} = ## Fetch value of result if set, or return the value `otherwise` ## See `valueOr` for a template version that avoids evaluating `otherwise` ## unless necessary if self.o: self.v else: otherwise func get*[T, E](self: var Result[T, E]): var T {.inline.} = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise Defect ## Exception bridge mode: raise given Exception instead ## See also: Option.get assertOk(self) self.v template `[]`*[T: not void, E](self: Result[T, E]): T = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise Defect ## Exception bridge mode: raise given Exception instead mixin get self.get() template `[]`*[T, E](self: var Result[T, E]): var T = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise Defect ## Exception bridge mode: raise given Exception instead mixin get self.get() template unsafeGet*[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): T = ## Fetch value of result if set, undefined behavior if unset ## See also: Option.unsafeGet assert self.o self.v func expect*[T: not void, E](self: Result[T, E], m: string): T = ## Return value of Result, or raise a `Defect` with the given message - use ## this helper to extract the value when an error is not expected, for example ## because the program logic dictates that the operation should never fail ## ## ```nim ## let r = Result[int, int].ok(42) ## # Put here a helpful comment why you think this won't fail ## echo r.expect("r was just set to ok(42)") ## ``` if not self.o: raiseResultDefect(m, self.e) self.v func expect*[T: not void, E](self: var Result[T, E], m: string): var T = if not self.o: raiseResultDefect(m, self.e) self.v func `$`*(self: Result): string = ## Returns string representation of `self` if self.o: "Ok(" & $self.v & ")" else: "Err(" & $self.e & ")" func error*[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): E = ## Fetch error of result if set, or raise Defect if self.o: when T is not void: raiseResultDefect("Trying to access error when value is set", self.v) else: raise (ref ResultDefect)(msg: "Trying to access error when value is set") self.e template value*[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): T = mixin get self.get() template value*[T, E](self: var Result[T, E]): T = mixin get self.get() template valueOr*[T, E](self: Result[T, E], def: T): T = ## Fetch value of result if set, or supplied default ## default will not be evaluated iff value is set if self.o: self.v else: def # void support template ok*[E](R: type Result[void, E]): auto = ## Initialize a result with a success and value ## Example: `Result[int, string].ok(42)` R(o: true) template ok*[E](self: var Result[void, E]) = ## Set the result to success and update value ## Example: `result.ok(42)` mixin ok self = (type self).ok() template ok*(): auto = mixin ok ok(typeof(result)) template err*(): auto = mixin err err(typeof(result)) # TODO: # Supporting `map` and `get` operations on a `void` result is quite # an unusual API. We should provide some motivating examples. func map*[E, A]( self: Result[void, E], f: proc(): A): Result[A, E] {.inline.} = ## Transform value using f, or return error if self.o: result.ok(f()) else: result.err(self.e) func flatMap*[E, A]( self: Result[void, E], f: proc(): Result[A, E]): Result[A, E] {.inline.} = if self.o: f(self.v) else: Result[A, E].err(self.e) func mapErr*[E, A]( self: Result[void, E], f: proc(x: E): A): Result[void, A] {.inline.} = ## Transform error using f, or return value if self.o: result.ok() else: result.err(f(self.e)) func map*[T, E]( self: Result[T, E], f: proc(x: T)): Result[void, E] {.inline.} = ## Transform value using f, or return error if self.o: f(self.v); result.ok() else: result.err(self.e) func get*[E](self: Result[void, E]) {.inline.} = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise ## See also: Option.get mixin assertOk assertOk(self) func tryGet*[E](self: Result[void, E]) {.inline.} = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise a CatchableError mixin raiseResultError if not self.o: self.raiseResultError() template `[]`*[E](self: Result[void, E]) = ## Fetch value of result if set, or raise mixin get self.get() template unsafeGet*[E](self: Result[void, E]) = ## Fetch value of result if set, undefined behavior if unset ## See also: Option.unsafeGet assert self.o func expect*[E](self: Result[void, E], msg: string) = if not self.o: raise (ref ResultDefect)(msg: msg) func `$`*[E](self: Result[void, E]): string = ## Returns string representation of `self` if self.o: "Ok()" else: "Err(" & $self.e & ")" template value*[E](self: Result[void, E]) = mixin get self.get() template value*[E](self: var Result[void, E]) = mixin get self.get() template `?`*[T, E](self: Result[T, E]): T = ## Early return - if self is an error, we will return from the current ## function, else we'll move on.. ## ## ``` ## let v = ? funcWithResult() ## echo v # prints value, not Result! ## ``` ## Experimental # TODO the v copy is here to prevent multiple evaluations of self - could # probably avoid it with some fancy macro magic.. let v = (self) if not v.o: when typeof(result) is typeof(v): return v else: return err(typeof(result), v.e) v.v